History - United States History 1865 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

History - United States History 1865 - Essay Example Expansion of Cuban sugar industry had then brought a measure of prosperity and a dwindling of the independent movement. But a change in American tariff policies in 1894 affected the Cuban sugar market and brought hard times, unemployment and a renewal of hostilities in early 1895. Spanish government sought to introduce reforms in Cuba on the diplomatic demand of U.S, just when the controversy seemed to be quieting and the U.S battleship 'Maine' was sunk. Despite frantic Spanish efforts to prove that the Spanish government had no part in the sinking, and new diplomatic concession, the U.S Congress started the demand of Spain quitting the island altogether. War was the result. Throughout the nineteenth century U.S had pursued the policy of expansion. But as a new industrial America emerged it started its journey to become the new world power after the war. The country's interest in international affairs steadily grew. Friendly relations with Japan and trade with China was increased to the point when Open Door Policy 1899 was presented as a means of keeping China's trade open to all comers. Later U.S, along with Britain, Germany, France, and Japan entered into a world-wide race for power. Viewed in the long perspective, the Spanish American War was but one incident in a series of events which marked this arrival of United States as a world power. The years between 1865 a... There were many industrial revolutionary inventions like sewing machine, steel plow, telegraph, light bulb, telephone and many more, which made the U.S. boom in the international market. As America was on its path to become the world power, it introduced the method of mass production in the country. America was a rich continent for the aggressive and ingenious to master. Between 1865 and 1880 the national wealth doubled and by 1900 it became massive. The nation's iron ore, its oil, its lumber, and its western agricultural lands were sources of yet untapped wealth. Its people, who by and large admired the successful enterprise, eagerly provided investments and speculative capital. Only then it became clear that the dynamic capitalism of an expanding America, seizing upon unparalleled natural resources and utilizing the new machines of the industrial revolution, had transformed the national economy. There were 140,000 industries of all types in 1860 and by 1880, there were 250,000. In 20 years the employee double and labor force got strong. Estimated wealth in 1865 was 20 billion while in 80's it was 43 billion. Bank deposits tripled between 1865 and 1880. The inflation rate between 1880 and1890 was below 5 percent, which resulted in deduction of the tax rate. There were many ups and downs during this time period but it was not enough to become a hurdle in America way in becoming a world power. 3. Discuss the problems associated with the Industrial Revolution and how the people reacted. Include in your discussion the Populists and the Progressives. The United States, as a powerful force in the modern era of industry and world commerce, henceforth was to be an important participant in world affairs. There

Jumeira's firm specific and home location advantages Essay

Jumeira's firm specific and home location advantages - Essay Example The Jumeira Hotel in Dubai is called the Burj al Rab. After its completion, it was the ninth largest in Dubai. The total space that the facility covers is enormous. Its location makes it more appealing than other hotels of the same standards. This is the case with many other hotels in this chain. This essay aims at determining the specific and home country location advantages that the jumeira group of hotel has over other hotels. The Jumeira Hotel is strategically placed that other hotels of the same standards cannot match the type of appeal that it brings to the customer. The Jumeira branches of hotels are mostly situated by the shore of water bodies this makes them a variety of options. The can provide water tourism services, something that not many other hotels have. They are strategically placed in the various countries that they are found in. To begin with, Dubai is among the cities with the largest inflow of tourists in the world. With the new major tourist attractions coming up in the place, the number of visiting tourists is increasing tremendously. This gives the hotel an advantage over hotels in other parts of the world. The large number of tourists in Dubai is a guarantee that the hotel will register huge numbers of tourists. This is also the case with the other branches of the hotel. For example, the Jumeira Carlton towers in London, it is a major tourist attraction in itself, leave alone the amo unt of tourists that London receives, the strategic design and placement by the water side makes it very appealing. The tourism statistics of the countries where the various hotels are found rank very well in terms of the numbers of tourists. Some of the various locations include; the Abu Dhabi branch, Frankfurt, Kuwait, Istanbul, Maldives, Rome, shanghai, Mallorca, and Baku. All these countries are major tourist attractions sites. Spain Italy and London are ranked among the top ten highest

Methods of Data Collection Essay Example for Free

Methods of Data Collection Essay Introduction: Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are qualitative methods for data collection. Bakhtadze (2012:82) ‘When you have decided on a topic, refined it and specified objectives, you start considering the ways of collecting the evidence you require. The initial question that guides you is: â€Å"What do I need to know to answer my research problem? Why do I need it?† After you have answered the question you start choosing the best ways of collecting information. Researchers next decide how they are going to collect their empirical research data. That is they decide what method of data collection (test, questionnaires, focus group, observation, interviews) they are going to use to physically obtain research data from their research participants.’ University of Wilconsin (2012)The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include: * Experiments/clinical trials.   * Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day). * Obtaining relevant data from management information systems. * Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc). Wikipedia (2012) In statistics, survey methodology is the field that studies the sampling of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample. Polls about public opinion, such as political beliefs, are reported in the news media in democracies. Other types of survey are used for scientific purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research fields, e.g., marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology. A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), behavior (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern. Survey methodology seeks to identify principles about the design, collection, processing, and analysis of surveys in connection to the cost and quality of survey estimates. It focuses on improving quality within cost constraints, or alternatively, reducing costs for a fixed level of quality. Survey methodology is both a scientific field and a profession. Part of the task of a survey methodologist is making a large set of decisions about thousands of individual features of a survey in order to improve it. The most important methodological challenges of a survey methodologist include making decisions on how to: * Identify and select potential sample members. * Contact sampled individuals and collect data from those who are hard to reach (or reluctant to respond). * Evaluate and test questions. * Select the mode for posing questions and collecting responses. * Train and supervise interviewers (if they are involved). * Check data files for accuracy and internal consistency. * Adjust survey estimates to correct for identified errors. Advantages * They are relatively easy to administer. * Can be developed in less time compared with other data-collection methods. * Can be cost-effective. * Few experts are required to develop a survey, which may increase the reliability of the survey data. * If conducted remotely, can reduce or obviate geographical dependence. * Useful in describing the characteristics of a large population assuming the sampling is valid. * Can be administered remotely via the Web, mobile devices, mail, e-mail, telephone, etc. * Efficient at collecting information from a large number of respondents. * Statistical techniques can be applied to the survey data to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance even when analyzing multiple variables. * Many questions can be asked about a given topic giving considerable flexibility to the analysis. * Support both between and within-subjects study designs. * A wide range of information can be collected (e.g., attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviour). * Because they are standardized, they are relatively free from several types of errors. Disadvantages The reliability of survey data may depend on the following: * Respondents motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond: * Respondents may not be motivated to give accurate answers. * Respondents may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light. * Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given action. * Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables. * Self-selection bias: Although the individuals chosen to participate in surveys are often randomly sampled, errors due to non-response may exist ( Adà ©r et al. (2008:13) . That is, people who choose to respond on the survey may be different from those who do not respond, thus biasing the estimates. For example, polls or surveys that are conducted by calling a random sample of publicly available telephone numbers will not include the responses of people with unlisted telephone numbers, mobile (cell) phone numbers, people who are unable to answer the phone (e.g., because they normally sleep during the time of day the survey is conducted, because they are at work, etc.), people who do not answer calls from unknown or unfamiliar telephone numbers. Likewise, such a survey will include a disproportionate number of respondents who have traditional, land-line telephone service with listed phone numbers, and people who stay home much of the day and are much more likely to be available to participate in the survey (e.g., people who are unemployed, disabled, elderly, etc.). * Question design. Survey question answer-choices could lead to vague data sets because at times they are relative only to a personal abstract notion concerning strength of choice. For instance the choice moderately agree may mean different things to different subjects, and to anyone interpreting the data for correlation. Even yes or no answers are problematic because subjects may for instance put no if the choice only once is not available. Questionnaires Wikipedia (2012)A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opini on polls. Basic rules for questionnaire item construction * Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest. * Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers. * Think of having an open answer category after a list of possible answers. * Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item. * Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives. * Do not make assumptions about the respondent. * Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels * Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. * Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?). Questionnaire administration modes Main modes of questionnaire administration are: * Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally. * Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper. * Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer. * Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects following items optimized for the ‘testees ‘estimated ability or trait. -Wikipedia. Org Observational study In epidemiology and statistics, an observational study draws inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. This is in contrast with experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group before the start of the treatment. Wikipedia (2012)Although, observational studies cannot be used as reliable sources to make statements of fact about the safety, efficacy, or effectiveness of a practice, they can still be of use for some other things: [T]hey can: 1) provide information on â€Å"real world† use and practice; 2) detect signals about the benefits and risks of[the] use [of practices] in the general population; 3) help formulate hypotheses to be tested in subsequent experiments; 4) provide part of the community-level data needed to design more informative pragmatic clinical trials; and 5) inform clinical practice.’ Bakhtadze (107:2012) Observation is watching behavioral patterns of people in certain situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. Quantitative Observation: Quantitative Observation involves the standardization of all observational procedures in order to obtain reliable research data. Qualitative Observation: Qualitative Observation involves observing all relevant phenomena and taking extensive field notes without specifying in advance exactly what is observed. Focus Groups Bakhtadze (106:2012) A focus group is a type of group interview in which a group moderator (working for the researcher) leads a discussion with a small group of individuals to examine how the group members think and feel about the topic. Purposes of Focus groups: 1. Obtaining general background information about a topic of interest; 2. Stimulating new ideas and creating concepts; 3. Generating impressions of products, programs, services, etc. 4. Learning how respondents talk about the phenomenon of interest; 5. Interpreting previously obtained qualitative results Summary A method of data collection is the procedure that a researcher uses to physically obtain research data from research participants. The method of data collection that is used in a research study is discussed in the method section of a research report. . Finally, the methods of data collection discussed in this paper work can be mixed by using the fundamental principle of mixed research to strengthen the evidence provided by a research study. References: Adà ¨r, H. J., Mellenbergh, G. J., Hand, D. J. (2008). Advising on research methods: A consultants companion. Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. Bakhtadze, I., 2012.Course note on Research Methodology, Department of Education, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi-Georgia. World Bank, n.d: Data Collection Methods, 2012 viewed 28th of December 2012 http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/datacoll.htm University of Wilconsin, n.d., Data Collection Methods, viewed 28th of December 2012 http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/researchmethods/data%20collection%20methods/data%20collection%20methods.htm Wikipedia, 2012, Questionnaire, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire Wikipedia, 2012, Survey Methodology, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey Wikipedia, 2012, Observational Study, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_study

Harlem Renaissance Art Style and History

Harlem Renaissance Art Style and History The legacy of the Harlem Renaissance is that it redefined how America and the world, viewed the African-American population. The migration of Southern Blacks to the North changed the image of the African-American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness; African-Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally. Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African-American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North. Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the New Negro, who through intellect and production of literature, art, and music could challenge the pervading racism and stereotypes to promote progressive or socialist politics, and racial and social integration. The creation of art and literature would serve to uplift the race. New Negro is a term popularized during the Harlem Renaissance implying a more outspoken advocacy of dignity and a refusal to submit quietly to the practices and laws of Jim Crow racial segregation. The term New Negro was made popular by Alain LeRoy Locke. It is my intent to show how Carl Van Vechten, James Van Der Zee, and James Latimer Allen interpret and display the New Negro in their work of portraitures. As white families moved from cities to suburbs, the advent of World War I created a shortage of labor in northern cities. African Americans began to migrate north from their southern rural homes. During the 1920s, 1.5 million African Americans migrated north in hope of employment and relief from tthe prejudice that oppressed them so severely in the South. Van Vechtens many portraits of African-American performers, writers, and musicians taken in New York City reflect his interest in African Americans and the arts. They also reflect the growing presence of African Americans in northern cities resulting from the mass migration of the 1920s. More than this, these portraits also document the impact of this migration in popularizing African-American artistic movements such as jazz, the blues, and the Harlem Renaissance. I am certain that my first interest in making [these] photographs was documentary and probably my latest interest in making them is documentary too . . . I wanted to show young people of all races how many distinguished Negroes there were in this world . . . he adds that the process of making photographic portraits is a magical act. Bessie Smiths notorious private life contributed to glamorizing the self-destructive behavior often associated with jazz, blues, and rock performers of the present day. Smiths excessive drinking, violent temper (and physical strength), and predatory sexual life involving both men and women were boundary breaking, even by the standards of free-living musicians of the Roaring Twenties. A number of Smiths recordings in her later career were frankly pornographic, reflected both her loss of stature as an artist and her first-hand experience in reckless and often abusive relationships. All of this is important to keep in mind while analyzing this piece. We see the subject, Smith looking up and back at a bust of an African statue. While she is physically looking in a backward motion it can also be interpreted as a metaphor for l ooking into ones own past and heritage. With Smiths dicey past and morally grey activities Van Vechten portrays her as a beautiful female specimen who is in adoration of her African roots. Van Vechten place Smith below the statue which forces her to look up in its direction which is historically pious in stance. She is in veneration of her ancestors; she has them to thank for her present success as a performer. The portraits taken by James Latimer Allen were of many men and women who created the Harlem Renaissance exhibit with a purposeful uniformity. Men dressed in a dapper manner in suits and ties, women in their Sunday best. Through this formal statement Allen was underscoring the emergence of what a local magazine, The Survey Graphic, in 1925 had called the New Negro. Harlem photographer James Allens portrait of graphic artist James Lesesne Wells shows his subject intensely engaged with a drinking cup from Central Africa. Wells gazes down on the face carved on the vessel as if communing with an ancestor. The entire notion of this photo is very contrived. It is a bit of a strain to believe that Wells has a deep connection much less a full understanding of his ancestral past. The fact is the New Negros was a group that had never known slavery. Therefore they were comfortable with the idea of succeeding in all realms of culture and in any profession. Whether Wells understands or appreciate s the artifact if it is even authentic doesnt matter. What is really important is his presence and brooding manner. He seems to be engulfed within his own thoughts. His meditative state gives the viewer the idea that this Black man is able to think on a high level proving his intelligence and all around competence within society. His is very neatly put together; though no real emphasis is put on his attire we can still tell that he is not poor. Wells is looking down at the cup, a contrast to the image of Smith who is looking upward at her African fetishe. In comparison, these two images are similar in that they both are looking to their past and pieces of African art which serve as an affirmation of their heritage and identity. In contrast, Wells is putting himself above and beyond his ties to slavery; he is asserting himself into the image of the New Negro. Wells may reject the European ideas of primitivism because he himself is an artist who is very influenced by European woodcuts and their makers. Alain Locke happens to be one of his biggest supporters which may also feed into his self assured and confident nature that he is about to portray. Aesthetically the composition is lacking. Our eyes are guided diagonally to the cup so that we too may contemplate and feel the magic that lies within the cup. As contrived as the pictorial space and composition is, it certainly promotes the values of the New Negro. A lot of scholars and critics agree that James Van Der Zee documented the truth and he was very creative and realistic in doing so. They feel he used photography to document Black America by creating a vision of success and naturalness. Through his artwork he wanted to show that life for African Americans in Harlem could be better and will be better. He wanted them to have a better, wealthier image showing that they too can be successful he took pictures of them either looking strong, happy, or dominant. Van Der Zee had the ability to construct his compositions so they were visually interesting and coherent. They have an aesthetic dimension that is independent of whatever they depict. Experts explain that the best photographers do the unexpected; they do not just focus on the fantasized world but the real world also Van Der Zee did both. He provided an image for African Americans showing success and showing what they face in everyday life by creating a natural look so they fit in. Wo rks by Van Der Zee are artistic as well as technically proficient. His work was in high demand, due in part to his experimentation and skill in double exposures and in retouching negatives of children. A theme that reoccurs in his photographs is the emergent black middle class, which he captured using traditional techniques in often idealistic images. Negatives were retouched to show glamour and an aura of perfection. This affected the likeness of the person photographed, but he felt each photo should transcend the subject. His carefully posed family portraits reveal that the family unit was an important aspect of Van Der Zees life. He photographed the people of Harlem for more than six decades, depicting the life of one of the most celebrated black communities in the world. By providing elaborate costumes, props, and backdrops, in combination with creative double exposures, expert retouching, and airbrushing, Van Der Zee became renowned for the quality of his portraits. Van Der Zee actively worked to manipulate an image through careful composition, use of multiple negatives, retouching, dramatic lighting, and skillfully painted backdrops and props. It is tempting to compare his multi-layered images to photomontage created in the 1920s and 1930s. However, Van Der Zee was familiar with neither the avant-garde photographic practices in Europe nor the modernist photography by Alfred Stieglitz. Although he gained fame for his portrayal of African-American celebrities who passed through Harlem, Van Der Zee made his daily living by taking thousands of photographs of Harlems residents, including family groups, weddings, athletic teams, and social clubs. In this portrait, Wedding Day, Harlem, Van Der Zee was creating an unusual but realistic message. The most important concepts of the portrait are the facial expressions on the bride and grooms face. The bride is looking at the camera while the groom is looking at her. Her face has a serious structure, showing that she is dominant, as her body is positioned slanted position but her posture is straight. The groom is admiring her and being a gentleman. The painted backdrop of the fireplace and a superimposed image of a little girl who is playing with a newly available black baby doll all speak of the couples dream of a middle class status. The architecture of the columns and the ornate chair are visual tropes that have been used throughout history in such other wedding portraits such as the Arnolfini portrait. A domestic family life, and black pride are the ideas all fall into line with the New Negro movement these are all concepts that Van Der Zee puts into action in his portraits. These works portray the peoples of African descent in a positive light in normal, human situations. Historically and continually, peoples of African descent are often portrayed negatively in the various media, and many mainstream photographers working in areas such as Harlem, have historically highlighted squalid conditions, social problems, or exoticism. Such Western interest in tribal artifacts grew from the colonization of Africa by Europeans, whose takeover of the continent is documented through a colored map. By 1900, few major artists were untouched by the fascination with African and Oceanic primitive art. Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and others were drawn to the styles and motifs from these non-Western cultures as a way to challenge traditional aesthetic ideas. They saw western styles as stagnant and irrelevant to modern society. Unfortunately, part of the expectation of African-American artists of this time period was to relate to and produce images that correlated with tri bal artifacts. While Europeans understood African objects through the lens of colonialism, Americans viewed them as representing the legacy of slavery and segregation. Racial biases resulted in the negative perception of African art which persists to this day. But since the Harlem Renaissance is remembered as a fleeting golden age; a contemporary viewer cannot help but read evanescence into these portraits. Van Der Zee, Allen, and Van Vechten did their part to promote African-Americans in a light that they deserve even if they may not have monetarily deserved the title. All humans deserve the right to dream and have the same goals despite racial barriers. It is my belief that these artists truly upheld the image of the New Negro while also continually trying to move forward with that idea and their own artwork. Carl Van Vechten, Portrait of Bessie Smith James Van Der Zee, Future Expectations (Wedding Day)1926 James Latimer Allen, Portrait of James Lesesne Wells, c. 1930.

Use with caution: Turnitin.com :: plagiarism detection software

Use with caution: Turnitin.com by Valerie Balester, Executive Director We were informed this past summer by Instructional Technology Services that students should not include identifying information on work submitted to Turnitin.com. ITS is concerned about reservations expressed by the U.S. Department of Education regarding student privacy and FERPA regulations. However, some professionals within the field of composition instruction have other concerns: plagiarism detection software like Turnitin does more damage, many of us fear, than violating privacy. One of the most influential professional organizations in composition, the Conference on College Communication and Composition (CCCC), for example, suggests that plagiarism detection software â€Å"undermines students’ authority over the uses of their own writing† (http://ccccip.org/files/CCCC-IP-PDS-Statement-final.pdf). Why, you might ask, should we care? After all, student writing is just practice writing, and it doesn’t really count for anything. It’s not like our writing, by which we make our bread and butter. But when we treat student writing as inconsequential, so do students, and the result is the careless, poorly written drivel that we have been trying to obliterate with W courses. Students who do not feel pride of ownership and control over their work will not give it the time and attention it needs to be excellent. Beyond this basic concern is the atmosphere plagiarism software detection programs can create, the expectation that students will cheat, that they are basically dishonest in their work. This atmosphere undermines trust and make writing even more distasteful. It’s just another trap, another hurdle to jump before graduation. Students are encouraged to see writing for college as a game rather than as an integral part of their education. We don’t want that. The CCCC also worries that programs like Turnitin will make college faculty complacent by shifting responsibility for detecting plagiarism onto technology. It’s only a matter of time before students learn to beat the software. I have personally tested it with my students, asking them to cheat; many of their transgressions went undetected by Turnitin. Students who run originality reports that come out clean may still have made mistakes, but if they rely too heavily on the report, they will not know it. After all, learning citation properly is far more than learning a set of rules, a style, the correct placement of commas and capital letters. Learning citation is first and foremost learning how a discipline creates and disseminates knowledge. It is subtle, takes many years to master, and is the mark of a professional.

St. Augustin Essay -- essays research papers

From the analysis of St. Augustine Confessions and Beowulf, it is clear that the two authors, St. Augustine and the poet respectively, differ on their views of death, which helps to paint a better picture of the world that each writer lived in. In Augustine's writings, death plays a major role in life; it serves as the stepping stone to a greater existence in heaven. In Augustine's world, Christianity and God both play an important role in how death is viewed. In the poets writings we see a different perspective, one in which the time you spend on earth is of great importance; very little thought is given to life after death. Although God is mentioned and discussed throughout the writing, it is a very different perspective than the one shown by Augustine. In the writing of St. Augustine, the reader gets a small glimpse of what life was like in the Roman Empire in the forth century, and more particularly how death was viewed during this period. According to the Confessions, life, though valued, was just a time spent before God chose to bring your soul to heaven; contingent of course on the fact that you were a Christian. 'Yet in a moment, before we had reached the end of the first year of a friendship….you took him from this world (Confessions, 75).'; 'When all hope of saving him was lost, he was baptized as he lay unconscious (Confessions, 75).'; This passage about St. Augustine's friend helps to illustrate that as death drew near in Augustine's time, thoughts went to the after life in heaven. This hypothesis is furthered when Augustine writes about the death of his mother. 'And so on the ninth day of her illness, when she was fifty-six and I was thirty-three, her pious and devoted soul was set free from the body (Confessions, 2 00).'; Some might argue that the sorrow that Augustine describes at both the deaths of his friend and mother illustrates that death was not looked on as a passage to life in heaven, but as a very sorrowful and deplorable event. Though Augustine admits to feeling great sorrow at the death of those close to him, he goes on to point out that these feelings are merely of the imperfect body. When one lets go and listens to his soul he will see that all things begin and end with God. 'For the senses of the body are sluggish, because they are senses of flesh and blood…They are limited by their own nature (Confessions, ... ...n a rich shroud or embalmed with spices, nor did she wish to have a special monument or a grave in her own country…All she wanted was that we should remember her at your altar, (Confessions, 204).'; This is a very strong example of how different the worlds of St. Augustine and the poet were. From the limited view of the life presented by the authors of the Confessions and Beowulf, it is easy to see that the worlds in which they lived were very different. The world of St. Augustine seems well ordered and compact with cities and government officials. It seems to be a highly intellectual culture strongly influenced by religion and God. The world of the poet seems much different in nature than that of St. Augustine. The poet's world seems to be much less organized and vast, with various kings as opposed to government officials. It seems to be populated with many roaming bands, and the people seem to be much less intellectually and religiously motivated. It seems they lived simple lives in a constant search for glory and notoriety. With such different cultures it is not difficult to concede that their respective views on death would be as diverse as the cultures themselves.

Improvement of the International Trade Essay

Introduction Organizations are facing increased global competition, economic uncertainties, and changing markets. Technology is changing the way we conduct business and manage information. Outsourcing of goods and services enables companies to take advantage of lower costs in areas such as labor, energy, land and capital. By doing this, companies hope to lower their overall cost structure, improve profit margins, and enhance product quality, reliability and distribution, thus allowing them to compete more effectively. Suppliers and vendor partners may be located in the same city, region or country. But they are just as likely to be located halfway around the world, adding new challenges to business management. The growth of international strategic partnerships has risen exponentially in the last twenty years. Competing in a global marketplace has made it increasingly important to align business strategies with a risk management strategy that includes strengthening global supply chains and vendor partnerships. In the near future, it is supply chains that will compete, not companies. Global supply chains must be carefully selected and monitored to ensure the competitive edge required to achieve success in the global market place. Typically, the first order of business has been logistics and operations. 1. Logistics moves the entire economy Economic developments in recent years have led to the creation of complex company networks and systems of goods flow – in the process, the globalization of procurement, production and sales as well as the division of labor have increased. In addition, the complexity of international logistics systems in many sectors has grown as a result of increasing product variations and differentiation. Another factor is that many companies are concentrating on their core skills and are reducing their vertical integration. The efficient management of the resulting global flows of goods has boosted both the business and economic significance of logistics. Structure of Global Trade International trade, both in terms of value and tonnage, has been a growing trend in the global economy. It is important to underline when looking at the structure of global trade that it is not nations that are trading, but mostly corporations with the end products mostly consumed by individuals. Inter and intra corporate trade is taking place across national jurisdictions is accounted as international trade. The emergence of the current structure of global trade can mainly be articulated within three major phases: †¢ First phase (immobile factors of production). Concerns a conventional perspective on international trade that prevailed until the 1970s where factors of production were much less mobile. Prior to the end of World War I, global trade was mainly structured by colonial relations. Particularly, there was a limited level of mobility of raw materials, parts and finished products. After World War I international trade became fairly regulated with impediments such tariffs , quotas and limitations to foreign ownership. Trade mainly concerned a range of specific products, namely commodities, (and very few services) that were not readily available in regional economies. Due to regulations, protectionism and fairly high transportation costs, trade remained limited and delayed by inefficient freight distribution. In this context, trade was more an exercise to cope with scarcity than to promote economic efficiency. †¢ Second phase (mobility of factors of production). From the 1980s, the mobility of factors of production, particularly capital, became possible. The legal and physical environment in which international trade was taking place lead to a better realization of the comparative advantages of specific locations. Concomitantly, regional trade agreements emerged and the global trade framework was strengthened from a legal and transactional standpoint (GATT/WTO). In addition, containerization provided the capabilities to support more complex and long distance trade flows, as did the growing air traffic. Due to high production (legacy) costs in old industrial regions, activities that were labor intensive were gradually relocated to lower costs locations. The process began as a national one, then went to nearby countries when possible and afterwards became a truly global phenomenon. Thus, foreign direct investments surged, particularly towards new manufacturing regions as multinational corporations became increasingly flexible in the global positioning of their assets. †¢ Third phase (global production networks). There is a growth in international trade, now including a wide variety of services that were previously fixed to regional markets and a surge in the mobility of the factors of production. Since these trends are well established, the priority is now shifting to the geographical and functional integration of production, distribution and consumption with the emergence of global production networks. Complex networks involving flows of information, commodities, parts and finished goods have been set, which in turn demands a high level of command of logistics and freight distribution. In such an environment, powerful actors have emerged which are not directly involved in the function of production and retailing, but mainly taking the responsibility of managing the web of flows. The global economic system is thus characterized by a growing level of integrated services, finance, retail, manufacturing and nonetheless distribution, which in turn is mainly the outcome of improved transport and logistics, a more efficient exploitation of regional comparative advantages and a transactional environment supportive of the legal and financial complexities of global trade. Trade Facilitation The volume of exchanged goods and services between nations is taking a growing share of the generation of wealth, mainly by offering economic growth opportunities in new regions and by reducing the costs of a wide array of manufacturing goods. By 2007, international trade surpassed for the first time 50% of global GDP, a twofold increase in its share since 1950. The facilitation of trade involves how the procedures regulating the international movements of goods can be improved. It depends on the reduction of the general costs of trade, which considers transaction, tariff, transport and time costs, often labeled as the â€Å"Four Ts† of international trade. United nations estimates have underlined that for developing countries a 10% reduction in transportation cost could be accompanied with a growth of about 20% in international and domestic trade. Thus, the ability to compete in a global economy is dependent on the transport system as well as a trade facilitation framework with activities including: †¢ Distribution-based. A multimodal and intermodal freight transport system composed of modes, infrastructures and terminals that spans across the globe. It insures a physical capacity to support trade and its underlying supply chains. †¢ Regulation-based. Customs procedures, tariffs, regulations and handling of documentation. They insure that trade flows abide to the rules and regulations of the jurisdictions they cross. Cross-border clearance, particularly in developing countries, can be a notable trade impediment with border delays, bottlenecks and long customer clearance times. †¢ Transaction-based. Banking, finance, legal and insurance activities where accounts can be settled and risk mitigated. They insure that the sellers of goods and services are receiving an agreed upon compensation and that the purchasers have a legal recourse if the outcome of the transaction is judged unsatisfactory or is insured if a partial or full loss incurs. The quality, cost, and efficiency of these services influence the trading environment as well as the overall costs linked with the international trade of goods. Many factors have been conductive to trade facilitation in recent decades, including integration processes, standardization, production systems, transport efficiency and transactional efficiency: †¢ Integration processes, such as the emergence of economic blocks and the decrease of tariffs at a global scale through agreements, promoted trade as regulatory regimes were harmonized. One straightforward measure of integration relates to custom delays, which can be a significant trade impediment since it adds uncertainty in supply chain management. The higher the level of economic integration, the more likely the concerned elements are to trade. International trade has consequently been facilitated by a set of factors linked with growing levels of economic integration, the outcome of processes such as the European Union or th e North American Free Trade Agreement. The transactional capacity is consequently facilitated with the development of transportation networks and the adjustment of trade flows that follows increased integration. Integration processes have also taken place at the local scale with the creation of free trade zones where an area is given a different governance structure in order to promote trade, particularly export oriented activities. In this case, the integration process is not uniform as only a portion of a territory is involved. China is a salient example of the far-reaching impacts of the setting of special economic zones operating under a different regulatory regime. †¢ Standardization concerns the setting of a common and ubiquitous frame of reference over information and physical flows. Standards facilitate trade since those abiding by them benefit from reliable, interoperable and compatible goods and services which often results in lower production, distribution and maintenance costs. Measurement units were among the first globally accepted standards (metric system) and the development of information technologies eventually led to common operating and telecommunication systems. It is however the container that is considered to be the most significant international standard for trade facilitation. By offering a load unit that can be handled by any mode and terminal with the proper equipment, access to international trade is improved. †¢ Production systems are more flexible and embedded. It is effectively productive to maintain a network of geographically diversified inputs, which favors exchanges of commodities, parts and services. Information technologies have played a role by facilitating transactions and the management of complex business operations. Foreign direct investments are commonly linked with the globalization of production as corporations invest abroad in search of lower production costs and new markets. China is a leading example of such a process, which went on par with a growing availability of goods and services that can be traded on the global market. †¢ Transport efficiency has increased significantly because of innovations and improvements in the modes and infrastructures in terms of their capacity and throughput. Ports are particularly important in such a context since they are gateways to international trade through maritime shipping networks. As a result, the transferability of commodities, parts and finished goods has improved. Decreasing transport costs does more than increasing trade; it can also help change the location of economic activities. Yet, transborder transportation issues remain to be better addressed in terms of capacity, efficiency and security. †¢ Transactional efficiency. The financial sector also played a significant role in integrating global trade, namely by providing investment capital and credit for international commercial transactions. For instance, a letter of credit may be issued based upon an export contract. An exporter can thus receive a payment guarantee from a bank until its customer finalizes the transaction upon delivery. This is particularly important since the delivery of international trade transactions can take several weeks due to the long distances involved. During the transfer, it is also common that the cargo is insured in the event of damage, theft or delays, a function supported by insurance companies. Also, global financial systems permit to convert currencies according to exchange rates that are commonly set by market forces, while some currencies, such as the Chinese Yuan, are set by policy. Monetary policy can thus be a tool, albeit contentious, used to influence trade. The close relationship between international economic growth and logistics Mobility is a critical condition for gains to be achieved in productivity, growth and employment in a macroeconomic context. The connection between economic growth and demand for product-transporting services is the result of various effects. These effects can clearly show the growing significance of the economic sector of goods distribution: 1 The effect of goods volume For a long time, it was assumed that in highly developed economies fewer and fewer quantities of goods were produced for the macrologistics system and that the transport volume rose at a slower pace than the economy. Today, it can be assumed that the development actually goes in the opposite direction as a result of the increasing inter-company division of labor created by intensified outsourcing in some highly developed countries. Transport intensity – that is, transport performance per production quantity unit – increases for many types of goods. Individual parts or components of a product are transported numerous times during various stages of the value chain, e.g., transports between plants. 2 The effect of goods structure In highly developed economies, the number of high-quality consumer and production goods rises. The share of mass goods, on the other hand, stagnates or even falls. The distribution of goods then shifts to high-quality products that must be shipped quickly. Because of the relatively low costs, road transports Road transport generally benefit. Railroads and inland water transports generally suffer because of their low speed. 3 The effect of logistics Logistics systems constantly undergo optimization. Supply chain management Supply chain management, production-synchronization deliveries that employ just-in-time Just-in-time concepts, the forgoing of storage and global outsourcing are just a few examples of this. But the application of modern logistics concepts affects the economic sector of goods distribution. This is because the new logistics focus of industrial and trade companies has altered the demands placed on the goods-distribution system. Road transports can react relatively flexibly and well to these demands. Railroads and inland water transports have a difficult time making this switch. At the same time, air-freight transports profit from time-critical shipments. 4 The effect of integration The creation of large economic regions gives rise to international, cross-border logistics systems. For instance, the European Union and regulations from the World Trade Organization [World Trade Organization (WTO) have propelled globalization Globalization in the goods-distribution sector. As economic regions spread, cross-border trade expands and the distances that must be covered by logistics systems lengthen. The effect of integration describes the increasing demands placed on the economic sector of goods distribution that are arising from the creation of larger economic regions and cross-border logistics systems. Conclusion: In all likelihood, globalization will continue and intensify. Trade is critical to economic growth and to global development. Trade facilitation has been pointed out as the lowest-hanging fruit in this respect. It has also been argued that logistics services play an important role in matching entrepreneurs in poor countries with foreign customers, whether these are retailers or downstream manufacturers. In particular, as the traditional wholesalers are increasingly being bypassed in modern supply chains, developing countries need to ensure that their entrepreneurs have access to modern intermediaries that can help match local suppliers with foreign buyers and with ensuring that products meet quality as well as time reliability requirements. The future growth of world trade will not be evenly spread, any more than world trade has ever been evenly spread in any period in world history. Individual countries are in very different positions with respect to their ability to benefit from world trade. Part of that is luck – having a coast, and rich neighbors help. But part of it is skill. Countries that are open to world trade, that create the infrastructure, and above all the right attitude, will be best placed to weather the current hiatus more successfully, and to prosper in the years ahead. References: http://www.dhl-discoverlogistics.com/cms/en/course/trends/macroeconomics.jsp http://www.na-businesspress.com/Wisma.pdf http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch5en/conc5en/ch5c2en.html http://www.unece.org.unecedev.colo.iway.ch/fileadmin/DAM/trade/agr/meetings/ge.01/document.r/wppdf.pdf